Bengal Renaissance And The 19th Century History Essay

Bengal Renaissance And The 19th Century History Essay The 19th century Bangla literature is not a product of the continuous on-going literary tradition of the land, if we for a moment not consider the socio-political changes of the 19th century and the conquest of Bengal in the late 18th century by the British East India Company. It is neither a product of a sudden upsurge of literary geniuses who started to excel in isolation. The changes that characterise the Bangla literary tradition of the 19th century is deeply and thoroughly influenced by the social reform movement known as the Bengal Renaissance. With the advent of the British East India Companys rule over Bengal, the mainstream literary tradition of the land was transported from its rural base to a highly sophisticated urban elite society. The roots from which Bangla literature had evolved for hundreds of years was soon sidelined and termed as folk-lore ( ­m ¡L-Lb ¡) and remote (fË ¡Ã‚ ¢Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ¹L) and the rural storytellers whose narratives revolved around a specific religious or social aspect was soon substituted by the elite, educated and intellectual Bengali babus of Calcutta, the then capital of the East India Companys dominion. The educational system of Bengal, as a whole, underwent a drastic change in the early 19th century. From a conventional learning of the Bangla, Sanskrit and Arabic languages, the holy Vedas or the Bangla folk-lore and ballads (N £Ã‚ ¢aL ¡) in the traditional makeshift schools (f ¡Wn ¡m ¡ or  ­V ¡m), the educational reforms in the late 18th century and the early 19th century saw the establishment of institutions like the Asiatic Society (1784), Fort William College (1800), Serampore College (1817), Hindu College (1817), Sanskrit College (1824) and others which were exclusively meant for the elite Bengalis in order to educate them according to the European idea of education, learning and value judgement. This socio-political change in the educational scenario of Bengal quite naturally gave birth to a new intellectual class of Bengalis who perceived the idea of European education as the ideal form of learning and who would later give birth to the Bengal Renaissance and in turn change the scenario of the literary tradition of the 19th century Bangla literature. According to historian Romesh Chunder Dutt, The conquest of Bengal by the English was not only a political revolution, but ushered in a greater revolution in thoughts and ideas, in religion and society From the stories of gods and goddesses, kings and queens, princes and princesses, we have learnt to descend to the humble walks of life, to sympathise with the common citizen or even common peasantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Every revolution is attended with vigour, and the present one is no exception to the rule. Nowhere in the annals of Bengali literature are so many and so bright names found crowded together in the limited space of one century as those of Ram Mohan Roy, Akshay Kumar Datta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Hem Chandra Banerjee, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Dina Bandhu Mitra. Within the three quarters of the present century, prose, blank verse, historical fiction and drama have been introduced for the first time in the Bengali literature (Dutt, 1877). It is tr ue what R.C. Dutt has tried to convey. Possibly very few literary traditions have had to deal with so many literary geniuses at one point of time. Cultural dominance was a major part of the idea of European colonisation of the Indian subcontinent. Along with the ruthless prowess of the Empire came the vaults filled with literature. And it is quite natural for the average Bengali intellectual elite to be mesmerised by the heroic epics of Homer and Virgil, the tragedies of Sophocles and Marlow, the blank verses of Milton and Shakespeare, the journey of Dante, the tantalising poetry of Petrarch and Sappho and the revolutionary ideas of Plato, Aristotle and Machiavelli, not only because of their literary expertise but more evidently because the colonised elite had to deal with the wide timeline of several literary genres at one point of time. Literary personnel like Romesh Chunder Dutt, Michael Madhusudan Dutt and others were so mesmerised with European culture and the English language in particular that they considered all non-European literatures to be of a little value as compared to the valour of the former; they even wrote let ters addressed to their Bengali friends in English. Like the European colonisers, it was easy for the intellectual elite, who were under the grasp of European education, to divide the history of Sanskrit or Bangla literature, which can be categorised as Hindu literature  [1]  , into three distinctive periods, the ancient, the medieval and the renaissance. The Occidentals believed that Hindu literature was little of value before the advent of the Europeans. It was the colonisers who educated the colonised and in turn helped the native intellectuals of Bengal to revolutionise their literary tradition. The Orientalists, like Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and others, too were of a similar notion over the historiography of Bangla literature. However they, unlike the Occidentals, believed that there was a Golden Age of Hindu literature, followed by a Dark Age under the Islamic rulers and finally the coming of the Anglo-Saxons or the East India Company, in simpler words, who regenerated, revived and re novated Hindu literature and more in particular Bangla literature bringing about a Renaissance in the literary tradition of the land. This submission of the intellectual class of Bengal to the dominance of the British or in a larger frame the European notion of education, art and culture brought about the changes in Bangla literature in the 19th century. Bengali writers and authors started to explore and later imitate and improvise the different genres of European literature. Meghnadbadh Kavya ( ­jOe ¡c hd L ¡hÉ), the first Bangla secondary epic was written by Michael Madhusudan Dutta in 1861, which follows the poetic tradition of Miltons Paradise Lost intricately. Sonnets were also introduced into Bangla literary tradition by Madhusudan. Novel as a genre found its way into the urban literary culture of Bengal with Hannah Mullens Karuna O Phulmanir Bibaran (Ll ¦Z ¡ J g ¥mj ¢Zl  ¢hhlZ) in 1852 followed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadyays Durgeshnandini (c ¤Ã‚ ­NÑne ¢Ã‚ ¾ce £) in 1865. Just for the records, both Madhusudan and Bankim Chandra had started their literary careers with pieces of literature written in English. Madhusudan began as a composer of English poetry and Bankim Chandras first publication was Rajmohans wife. Bengal renaissance in literature came along with the changes in the socio-political and religious outlook of the Bengali elite. It was an incident in the history of Bengal which widened the perspective of the orthodox Hindu-Bengalis. The advent of the Brahmo Samaj; the banning of Satidaha (pa £c ¡q)  [2]  , child marriage and pursuing women literacy and widow-remarriage along with the acceptance of the new wave of Bangla literature were all frames of the same picture, the Bengal renaissance. Bengal renaissance did show the authors and the poets of Bengal, the way out from the orthodoxy of the Hindu religion and the conventional mind-set of the literary personnel of the earlier periods. As a matter of fact, in literary texts, women attained a new and a great importance due to this new wave in Bangla literature. In Bankim Chandras Durgeshnandini (1865), though it is set in a historical locale discussing the conflict of the Pathans and the Rajputs, the three female characters, Ayesha, Tillotama and Bimala are portrayed under the main spotlight. All the three characters represent the free-woman spirit; Ayesha, the brave; Tilottama, the beautiful and Bimala, the courageous. Bankims Kapalkundala (1866), Mrinalini (1869) and Debi Choudhurani (1884) also deal with female protagonists in a male chauvinist society. In most of Rabindranath Tagores novels the plot revolves around the female characters. The role of Charu in Nastanirh (1901); Bimala in Ghare-Baire (1916) and Damini an d Nanibala in Chaturanga (1916) is revolutionary and is the most important in the ongoing storyline of the respective novels. Sarat Chandra Chattopadyay, though has dealt with the more inner part of the household as the subject of his literary works has shown the importance of women in the society. He has portrayed women as the main protagonist of the existing social order in his novels, for instance, Baradidi (1907), Parineeta (1914), Debdas (1917), Choritrohin (1917), Srikanto (1917-1933), Nishkriti (1917) and others. The Bengal renaissance saw authors who were actually politically sound and was particularly sensitive to the cause of women in the society and in turn the authors actually contradicts the conventional and orthodox perception of the male dominated society. For the first time in Bangla urban literature, women have been given the importance that she deserves. It was as if the rebirth of Mahua  [3]  as Kapalkundala, Mrinalini, Nanibala of Chaturanga, Charu of Nashtan ir or Rajlakhhi of Srikanto. Bengali authors, poets and intellectuals of the 19th century for instance Bankim Chandra Chattopahyay, Ram Mohan Roy and others had projected the rise of the middle class Bengali Hindus in their literary works and they are the same literary personnel who have paved the way for the later writers like Rabindranath Tagore and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay who have brought the middle class of the Bengali society in the limelight of their works of literature. Bangla literature was no longer written exclusively for the elite audience and with the rise of the printing press in Bengal, Bangla literature entered a new paradigm. Free thinking and the authors points of view were the ruling characteristics of Bangla literature in the mid and the late 19th century. The projection of the daily struggle became an integral part of the literary tradition. According to Nitish Sengupta, The Bengal renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775-1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941), although there have been many stalwarts thereafter embodying particular aspects of the unique intellectual and creative output. (Sengupta, 2001). He has emphasised that Bengal renaissance also incorporated a very vital aspect; the concept of the Swadeshi (nationalist freedom movement) and it is in the works of Madhusudan, Bankim Chandra and Rabindranath that we actually find its great importance. Madhusudans Meghnadbadh Kavya (1861) though is based upon a part of the Valmiki Ramayana, yet it is through the authors style and perspective that the point of view of the storyline shifts from Ayodhya to Lanka. In this version of the story of Rama, Ravana is the tragic hero who loses the battle in the end. This shift in the perspective of the plot can be compared to Miltons Paradise Lost where the audience sees the story of Heav en and Hell from the other point of view, the point of view of Satan. Madhusudan has brought in the point of the other in his version of Ramas story, where Meghnad and Ravana are the protagonists and Rama is just a successful conqueror. Meghnadbadh Kavya may well have depicted the conquest of Bengal by the East-India Company. It was published in 1861 only four years after the first war for independence and Madhusudan wrote it in a state when he had already faced the failure of pursuing a European dream. Bankims Anandamath (1882) starts with the horrors of the Bengal famine in a colonised Bengal. He describes the famine as, People sold their belongings, then their house, then their land, then their wives, then their children even then the famine has no end. Everyone wants to sell, theres no buyer. (Chattopadyay, 1882). Set in the background of the Sannyasi Rebellion in the late 18th century, it is considered one of the most important novels in the history of Bangla literature. Its i mportance is heightened by the fact that it is closely related with the struggle for Indian independence from the Anglo-Saxons. Bankims Debi Choudhurani (1884) which followed closely after Anandamath renewed the call for a resurgent India that fights against oppression of the British Empire with strength from within the common people, based on traditional Indian values of austerity, dedication and selflessness. Since it fuelled the patriotic struggle for Indian independence from the British Empire, the novel just like Anandamath was banned by the colonisers. In this novel, Bankim Chandra also reinforced his belief that an armed and face-to-face conflict with the Royal Army is the only way to win independence. Neel Darpan (The Indigo Planting Mirror) (1859) a play written by Dinabandhu Mitra was essential to Nilbidroha (Indigo Revolt). Mitra wrote in the preface of the English translation I present The Indigo Planting Mirror to the Indigo Planters hands; now, let every one of them, h aving observed his face, erase the freckle of the stain of selfishness from his forehead, and, in its stead, place on it the sandal powder of beneficence, then shall I think my labour success. (Mitra, 1859). The play was all about the differences between the old and beautiful culture of Bengal which is being eradicated by the new and advanced perspective of the mass. It is about the upheaval between the Indigo planters and Indian Rioters in different parts of Bengal, Bihar and U.P. This conflict gave rise to the rift and division between the different classes of the society and between the different sections of the Government as well. Later, Rabindranaths novels also do refer to the Swadeshi movement which sweeps over Bengal due to the impact of the Renaissance. Chaturanga, Shesher Kobita, Ghare-Baire, Noukadubi and others reflect the vibrant Bengali society. Ghare-Baire in particular illustrates the conflicting tendencies between the Moderate and the Extremist ideals, terrorism and religious zeal which were a part of the pre-independent Bengali community. Bengal renaissance in simpler words have brought the society a step closer to the middle-class readership, who would find it hard to escape the reality of the existing community. Before the advent of the Bengal renaissance in Bangla literature, a literary work was confined to a single belief, a single community and a single mind-set. The mid-nineteenth century saw the inter-mixing of different sections of the society, different religious beliefs or contradictions and different ways of life, all inter-mingled in the same sphere of the literary work. Bankims Durgeshnandini deals with the contradictions and later the interactions between the Pathans and the Rajputs; Rabindranaths Chaturanga immortalises the idea of atheism of Jyathamoshai who crosses the barrier of religion and social structure to help the lower strata of the society and the needy; Sarat Chandra in Srikanto has depicted Rajlakkhi as a prostitute but yet dearly loved by the protagonist, Srikanto. Another form of literature which took its birth in the mid 19th century in Bengal was essays (fËhà ¥). Akshay Kumar Boral, Ramendra Sundar Tribedi, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore and others of the mid and the late 19th century are the pioneers of Bangla essays of that period. Finally, in order to conclude, it is very important to understand that though Bengal renaissance was a product of the Bengali elite intellectuals under the deep-rooted influence of western education, which in a way has sidelined the indigenous literary tradition of Bengal, yet it has opened the minds of the audience forcing him to face the reality of the state of things. The changes that it characterised in the 19th century Bangla literature are great and inevitable and it is because of the renaissance in Bengal that Bangla literature has crossed all its barriers of religious and socio-political orthodoxy and closed-mindedness.

Cola Wars: Porters 5 Forces

Michael Porter developed five different forces in a framework he felt influenced industries. This framework was designed to help companies find ways to off-set a rival company and to help develop a more solid business plan. It has been known over the years a rivalry has existed been two of the biggest soda companies, Coca Cola and Pepsi. Three of Porter’s forces that are exemplified in this â€Å"coke war† are buyer power, barriers to entry, and rivalry which will be explained and elaborated on in the following essay. Buyer PowerThe retailers have a low to moderate buyer power over the consumer soft drink industry, due to the producer’s ability to forward integrate, the sheer number of buyers, and the buyer’s ability to forward integrate. Buyer power is the degree of influence customers have on the producing agent. Soft drink companies such as Coca Cola and Pepsi have used forward integration to take over their channels of distribution. They created contra cts that gave them the ability to set concentrate prices for their bottlers; in turn bottlers would respond to price fulgurations by adjusting retail pricing.In 2000, when Coca Cola raised concentrate prices by 7. 6%, bottlers raised the retail prices by 6 to 7%. This demonstrates that buyers have limited control over the price changes. Coca Cola has also made great efforts to take over the bottling of their product, by establishing the independent subsidiary Coca Cola Enterprises. They began by acquiring bottlers to produce one third of their volume during 1986 which increased to 80% in 2004. This gave Coca Cola more control over retail pricing, and distribution of their products to retail stores.Since there are so many retail stores that carry products that consumer soft drink, CSD, companies make, it is hard for buyers to create a collaborative effort to resist price increases. Buyer power also suffers if retailers are fragmented and are not concentrated to a single type. Almost any type of store will carry a CSD product, which makes sales very spread out across the board. The different kinds of intermediaries involved in retail sales are Fountain and Vending machines, Super-markets, Convenience and Gas, Super Centers, Mass Retailers, and Club and Drug Stores.To put things in perspective 34 % of sales comes from Fountain and Vending, while 31% are from supermarkets. Fountain and Vending machines are mostly controlled by the CSD bottlers. Even though supermarkets may sell the second largest volume, CSD companies make up 5. 5% of their sales and also bring customers to their door. Not enough to convince you? Consider this: CSD companies such as Coca Cola produce a wide variety of products ranging from sports drinks to water, all the way to energy drinks. Coca Cola most likely will not sell a product to a supermarket unless they carry their full line of products.If the retail prices increase on the Coca Cola product they may have little control over resistance , because they rely on the other products they provide. Lastly, Coca Cola is considered the most valuable brand in the world, with 10 major successful brands and substantial power in the realm of business. Although Coca Cola may have a significant amount of power over their buyers, companies with much smaller market share, and product lines are taken advantage of by larger retailers. For example, mass merchandisers make up 14% of Pepsi’s total revenue, making that intermediary crucial to the company’s profitability.In some cases retailers do have power to resist price increases because they purchase a large number of outputs. Typically there are far more buyers than concentrate producers, which can give them leverage over smaller brands that rely on the sales they generate. Barriers to Entry When entering a market there are certain barriers that prevent a firm from becoming established, or gaining market share. In the consumer soft drink industry there are high capital requirements, unequal access to distribution channels, and brand loyalty which translates to high barriers to entry.In the text it states the price of a concentrate manufacturing plant is fairly reasonable. Manufacturing facilities cost around $25 million, and $50 million including machinery, overhead, and labor. For established companies with separate revenue streams, generating this kind of money could be fairly reasonable, especially since one of these plants can serve the entire country. Coca Cola and Pepsi operate around 100 plants each for adequate distribution of their product. New entrants would have a hard time investing enough capital that would be required to keep up with Coke and Pepsi’s istribution. Advertising and promotion costs are also high in 2004; Coca Cola spent $246,243 just on advertising their cola product. This shows that in order to compete in this industry, entrants are forced to spend large sums of money on advertising, packaging, proliferation, an d widespread retail price discounting. The high capital investment also translates to lowers profit margins, which makes entry even more unappealing. Another factor that creates a barrier to entry is the unequal access to distribution channels.Coke and Pepsi created agreements with their franchised bottlers that prevent them from handling competing brands of other concentrate producers. This prevents companies from entering an industry and using a Coca Cola bottler to get their product on the market. Also as Coca Cola and Pepsi grow in size so does the shelf space they require. As stated previously Coca Cola and Pepsi produce around 10 brands each, this constricts the amount of shelf space an entry producer will have access to. The top two cola companies have also made a significant amount of acquisitions, to boost the distribution of their products relative to their competitors.Coca Cola won 68% pouring rights against Pepsi’s 22% and Cadbury Schweppes 10%, across the United States. The reason Coca Cola has a majority of the pouring rights is because their agreements with Burger King and McDonalds, as well as their exclusive pouring rights and contracts around the world; whereas entry producers do not have the capital to invest, in buying out pouring rights. The ability to use vending machine technology requires a high capital investment from incumbent firms. Coca Cola and Pepsi offer their bottlers incentives to develop vending machine technology which accounts for 34% of the industry sales volume.Entry companies would have to invest in this technology to compete with the volume sales figures. One of the marketing goals of a company is to establish brand loyalty. When brand loyalty is achieved, customers will most likely not switch to a competitors brand. As a barrier to entry, brand loyalty is affected by many factors, such as presence in the market, or advertising and promotion efforts, to name a few. Both Coca Cola and Pepsi were created in the 80â €™s, as pioneers of the cola industry. Coca Cola was the first to invent the original cola recipe, and patent the 6. -oz bottle. Coca Cola also used strong promotional efforts in World War II, which contributed to brand identity. The case does not supply information regarding the sales across different age groups, but I believe figures would suggest higher sales levels across the ages compared to newer brands. It is apparent that the companies with the longest presence in the industry have the highest market share, which also directly correlates with the amount of advertising each company has expended over time.Another perfect example of this trend in the CSD industry is energy drink company Red Bull, having the largest market share while also spending the most on advertising. This goes to show by having consistently strong promotional efforts and advertising both Coca Cola and Red Bull have excelled in their markets. It is difficult for new entrants of soft drink market to matc h the brand loyalty Coca Cola has established through aggressive advertising over the course of the company’s existence. Rivalry In the beverage industry rivalry is at best a mechanism that drives profits and keeps the industry in motion.Coca Cola explains that they are in the position they are in today because of their rivalry with Pepsi. Rivalry is high because of the competition between top brands, low product differentiation and slow industry growth. It is clear that there is a substantial rivalry between Coca Cola and Pepsi that alone claim 74. 8 % of the U. S. CSD market as of 2004. Not only does this information tell us that there is a small amount of major competitors in the industry, but it also says that there is a fight for market share with the top two brands. This is most exemplified in the advertising expenditure of the two companies.During 2003 Pepsi spend a total of $236,396 on advertising while Coca Cola spent $167,675; the year after Coke responded by raisin g their advertising expenditure to $246,243. This trend also happened in 1981 to 1984, when coke doubled its advertising spending; as a result Pepsi did as well. The next variable that contributes to the high degree of rivalry is the low product differentiation. Although there are many efforts made by beverage companies to differentiate their product from others, there are no truly unique attributes about a single CSD brand. Each cola company provides a elatively similar option in packaging, container size and ounces per container. It is typical for companies such as Coca Cola and Pepsi offer 10 different brands, 17 container types and provide many discounts and promotions. For example Coke make Sprite and Pepsi has Sierra Mist and Dr Pepper owns 7UP; this creates a rivalry over who has the best lemon lime soft drink product. To show my point, Pepsi launched â€Å"The Pepsi Challenge†, which gave customers the ability to try out the different brands and see how they compare. Pepsi knew they needed to find a way to show consumers the difference between their brand and the competitors.This approach fueled the rivalry among other CSD companies especially Coca Cola. Slow industry growth spurs rivalry because it calls for companies to develop new competitive advantages and core competencies to keep sales alive. The market share for cola products has dropped from 71% in 1990, to 60% in 2004. Other products such as energy drinks and bottled water are increasing in market share, as consumers switch their focus to more functional and healthy alternatives. Goizueta said, â€Å"The product and the brand, had a declining share in a shrinking segment of the market. Signifying the need for soft drink manufacturers to find new ways to boost sales and increase rivalry. To put a number on these increasing trends, bottled water volume sales grew by 18. 8% in 2004, compared to 7. 6% non-carb CSDs and1% CSD growth. Top companies now have to find ways to proliferate their CSD products in relation to their rivals. It is also a definite possibility with the slow sales volume growth of 10 billion cases in 2001 to 10. 2 in 2004 that companies will invest in new beverage arenas such as the functional category, thus creating new rivalries.

Illegal Immigration Is The United States - 1377 Words

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Ancient Greek Philosophy -Paper - 776 Words

Lovers of Wisdom Ancient Greek philosophy arouse in the 6th century BCE, some claim that Greek Philosophy was influenced by the older wisdom literature and mythological cosmogonies of the Ancient Greek Near East. Greeks had confidence in the power of the mind Greeks used observation and reason to determine why things happened, they opened up a new way of looking at human existence. During the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle it was a crime to investigate the things above the heavens and below the Earth. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were well known philosophers. Their research contributed to modern science and the development of Western political thought. Socrates, born in 5th century BCE, makes a watershed in†¦show more content†¦Plato like Socrates believed that reason not the experience of the sense led to genuine knowledge. He also believed in the quality of all people at birth. Plato believed that though the body dies and disintegrates; the soul continues to live forever. After the death of the body, the soul migrates to what Plato called the realm of the pure forms. It exists without a body, contemplating the forms. Plato thought that only the soul could perceive the ideal forms. He believed when the body and the soul combine, the body obstructs the soul s ability to recall the ideal forms. He maintained that he could ride only a high in society as their abilities allow. His society was divided into three: workers to produce the necessities of life, soldiers to defend the state and philosophers to rule. There is no direct information of how Plato s came to death. There are three stories of how he died one is Plato died in his bed. Another is Plato died at a wedding feast the last one suggest Plato died in his sleep. Aristotle was Plato’s student from the Academy. He later developed his own ideas about government Aristotle analyzes form of government such as monarchy and democracy. Just as Plato he preferred government by the many then the few. 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